Abstract

Microbial biomass is a promising source of essential macro- and micronutrients to be used in the food industry, e.g., protein, vitamins, essential amino acids, polysaccharide, etc. This article reviews scientific publications on the properties and composition of microbial biomass as a source of functional ingredients, its biological effectiveness, production methods, and composition.
The review covered research articles published in 2005–2021 and indexed in eLIBRARY.RU, Google Scholar, Scopus, Elsevier, and PubMed. It relied on such general scientific methods as analysis, generalization, and systematization.
Saccharomyces cerevisiae yeast and Aspergillus mycelial fungi appeared to be the most popular research objects. Most studies concentrated on the chitin-glucan-mannan complex of cell walls and protoplasmic biovaluable protein. Others featured the biocatalytic conversion of microbial polymers with the transfer of biologically valuable components into an enzyme-accessible state. Bioactive ingredients of microbial origin could be divided into sorbents, immunomodulators, neurotransmitters, antioxidants, and anticarcinogenics.
Microbial fermentolysates are a potential source of bioactive compounds for functional foods. However, the medical and biological properties of their minor bioactive components remain understudied while fermentolysates can yield new functional products fortified with essential amino acids and low-molecular bioactive peptides.

Keywords

Food products, microbial biomass, biocatalysis, fermentolysates, functional ingredients, nutrients, biologically active substances, biological efficiency

FUNDING

The research was conducted on the premises of the All-Russian Scientific Research Institute of Food Biotechnology (VNIIPBT) and supported by the Russian Science Foundation (RSF) , grant No. 22-16-00100, https://rscf.ru/project/22-16-00100

REFERENCES

1. Tutelyan VA, Nikityuk DB, Baturin AK, Vasiliev AV, Gapparov MMG, Zhilinskaya NV, et al. Nutriome as the direction of the “main blow”: Determination of physiological needs in macro and micronutrients, minor biologically active substances. Problems of Nutrition. 2020;89(4):24–34. (In Russ.). https://doi.org/10.24411/0042-8833-2020-10039
2. Kodentsova VM, Vrzhesinskaya OA. The analysis of domestic and international policy of food fortification with vitamins. Problems of Nutrition. 2016;85(2):31–50. (In Russ.). https://doi.org/10.24411/0042-8833-2016-00021
3. Starodubova AV, Livantsova EN, Derbeneva SA, Kosyura SD, Polenova NV, Varaeva YuR. Cardiovascular nutrition: Disease management and prevention as major public health problem nowadays. Problems of Nutrition. 2020;89(4):146–160. (In Russ.). https://doi.org/10.24411/0042-8833-2020-10049
4. Luthringer CL, Rowe LA, Vossenaar M, Garrett GS. Regulatory monitoring of fortified foods: Identifying barriers and good practices. Global Health: Science and Practice. 2015;3(3):446–461. https://doi.org/10.9745/GHSP-D-15-00171
5. Kodentsova VM, Vrzhesinskaya OA, Risnik DV, Nikityuk DB, Tutelyan VA. Micronutrient status of population of the Russian federation and possibility of its correction. State of the problem. Problems of Nutrition. 2017;86(4):113–124. (In Russ.). https://doi.org/10.24411/0042-8833-2017-00067
6. Kodentsova VM, Zhilinskaya NV, Shpigel BI. Vitaminology: from molecular aspects to improving technology of vitamin status children and adults. Problems of Nutrition. 2020;89(4):89–99. (In Russ.). https://doi.org/10.24411/0042-8833-2020-10045
7. Revyakina VA. The problem of food allergies at the present stage. Problems of Nutrition. 2020;89(4):186–192. (In Russ.). https://doi.org/10.24411/0042-8833-2020-10052
8. Gammel IV, Suvorova OV, Zaporozhskaya LI. The analysis of trends at Russian market of biologically active food supplements. Medical Almanac. 2017;51(6):154–158. (In Russ.). https://www.elibrary.ru/ZSMOMX
9. Serba EM, Rimareva LV, Sokolova EN, Borshcheva YuA, Kurbatova EI, Volkova GS, et al. Biotechnological foundations of directed conversion of agricultural raw materials and secondary bioresources for obtaining food ingredients, functional food and feed. Moscow: BIBLIO-GLOBUS; 2017. 180 p. (In Russ.). https://doi.org/10.18334/9785604023716
10. Demidova TI, Andreyko VS, Panchenkov DN, Demidov DA. Non-food bioactive components of food in specialized food products for athletes nutrition. Food Industry. 2014;(5):78–82. (In Russ.). https://www.elibrary.ru/SFJKZR
11. Mayurnikova LA, Koksharov AA, Krapiva TV, Novoselov SV. Food fortification as a preventive factor of micronutrient deficiency. Food Processing: Techniques and Technology. 2020;50(1):124–139. (In Russ.). https://doi.org/10.21603/2074-9414-2020-1-124-139
12. Khanturgaev AG, Zambalova NA, Khamagaeva IS, Boiarineva IV. Creating a biologically active supplement with synbiotic properties. Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Research. 2018;10(7):1683–1687.
13. Tutelʹyan VA, Spirichev VB, Shatnyuk LN. Correction of micronutrient deficiency as the most important aspect of healthy nutrition in Russia. Problems of Nutrition. 1999;68(1):3–11. (In Russ.). https://www.elibrary.ru/SBNROL
14. Tyshko NV, Sadykova EO, Shestakova SI, Aksyuk IN. Novel food sources: from gmo to the broadening of Russia's bioresource base. Problems of Nutrition. 2020;89(4):100–109. (In Russ.). https://doi.org/10.24411/0042-8833-2020-10046
15. Polyakov VA, Rimareva LV, Serba YeM, Pogorzhel'skaya NS, Rachkov KV. Biologically active microbial origin as a factor that generates functional properties of foods. Storage and Processing of Farm Products. 2013;(12):43–47. (In Russ.). https://www.elibrary.ru/RSQMPB
16. Dhillon GS, Kaur S, Brar SK, Verma M. Green synthesis approach: Extraction of chitosan from fungus mycelia. Critical Reviews in Biotechnology. 2013;33(4):379–403. https://doi.org/10.3109/07388551.2012.717217
17. Serba EM, Rimareva LV, Kurbatova EI, Volkova GS, Polyakov VA, Varlamov VP. The study of the process of enzymatic hydrolysis of yeast biomass to generate food ingredients with the specified fractional composition of protein substances. Problems of Nutrition. 2017;86(2):76–83. (In Russ.). https://doi.org/10.24411/0042-8833-2017-00036
18. Serba EM, Rimareva LV, Overchenko MB, Ignatova NI, Tadzhibova PY, Zorin SN. Production of peptides and amino acids from microbial biomass in food and feed industries: biotechnological aspects. Foods and Raw Materials. 2020;8(2):268–276. https://doi.org/10.21603/2308-4057-2020-2-268-276
19. Bowman SM, Free SJ. The structure and synthesis of the fungal cell wall. BioEssays. 2006;28(8):799–808. https://doi.org/10.1002/bies.20441
20. Feofilova EP. The fungal cell wall: Modern concepts of its composition and biological function. Microbiology. 2010;79(6):723–733. (In Russ.). https://www.elibrary.ru/NBSLNX
21. New N, Stevens WF, Tokura S, Tamura H. Characterization of chitosan-glucan complex extracted from the cell wall of fungus Gongronella butleri USDB 0201 by an enzymatic method. Enzyme and Microbial Technology. 2008;42(3):242–251. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enzmictec.2007.10.001
22. Kalebina TS, Rekstina VV. Molecular organization of yeast cell envelope. Molecular Biology. 2019;53(6):850–861. https://doi.org/10.1134/S0026893319060062
23. Abdel-Gawad KM, Hifney AF, Fawzy MA, Gomaa M. Technology optimization of chitosan production from Aspergillus niger biomass and its functional activities. Food Hydrocolloids. 2017;63:593–601. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2016.10.001
24. Zhang ZY, Jin B, Bai ZH, Wang XY. Production of fungal biomass protein using microfungi from winery wastewater treatment. Bioresource Technology. 2008;99(9):3871–3876. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2006.10.047
25. Ogunjobi AA, Mejeha OK, Fagade OE. Protein enrichment of brewery spent grains using Aspergillus oryzae. AU Journal of Technology. 2011;15(1):53–56.
26. Brar SK, Dhillon GS, Soccol CR. Biotransformation of waste biomass into high value biochemical. New York: Springer; 2013. 504 p. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-8005-1
27. Serba EM, Sokolova EN, Rimareva LV, Fursova NA, Volkova GS, Kurbatova EI, et al. Promising races of baker's yeast for the production of food ingredients enriched with selenium and chromium. Problems of Nutrition. 2020;89(6):48–57. (In Russ.). https://doi.org/10.24411/0042-8833-2020-10078
28. Serba EM, Tadzhibova PYu, Rimareva LV, Overchenko MB, Ignatova NI, Volkova GS. Bioconversion of soy under the influence of Aspergillus oryzae strains producing hydrolytic enzymes. Foods and Raw Materials. 2021;9(1):52–58. https://doi.org/10.21603/2308-4057-2021-1-52-58
29. Yamada EA, Scarbieri VC. Yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) protein concentrate: preparation, chemical composition, and nutritional and functional properties. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 2005;53(10):3931–3936. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf0400821
30. Volkova GS, Belekchi AP. Screening of bacteriocin-producing strains of lactic acid bacteria to create a drug with antimicrobial properties. Storage and Processing of Farm Products. 2018;(2):66–69. (In Russ.). https://www.elibrary.ru/XURRZZ
31. Serba EM, Tadzhibova PYu, Rimareva LV, Overchenko MB, Ignatova NI. Obtaining peptide and amino acid ingredients by enzymatic treatment of Aspergillus oryzae biomass. Mycology and Phytopathology. 2020;54(1):23–32. (In Russ.). https://doi.org/10.31857/S0026364820010079
32. Volkova GS, Kuksova EV, Serba EM. Investigation of biological interstrains and growing properties of lactic acid bacteria production strains. Relevant Issues of the Dairy Industry, Cross-Industry Technologies, and Quality Management Systems. 2020;1(1):104–109. (In Russ.). https://doi.org/10.37442/978-5-6043854-1-8-2020-1-104-109
33. Prosekov AYu, Dyshlyuk LS, Milentieva IS, Sukhikh SA, Babich OO, Ivanova SA, et al. Study of biocompatibility and antitumor activity of lactic acid bacteria isolated from the human gastrointestinal tract. International Journal of Pharmacy and Technology. 2016;8(2):13647–13661.
34. De Vuyst L, van Kerrebroeck S, Leroy F. Microbial ecology and process technology of sourdough fermentation. Advances in Applied Microbiology. 2017;100:49–160. https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.aambs.2017.02.003
35. Settanni L, Ventimiglia G, Alfonzo A, Corona O, Miceli A, Moschetti G. An integrated technological approach to the selection of lactic acid bacteria of flour origin for sourdough production. Food Research International. 2013;54(2):1569–1578. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2013.10.017
36. Volkova GS, Serba EM. New multistrain bacterial consortium for feed probiotics. Food Processing: Techniques and Technology. 2021;51(2):260–269. (In Russ.). https://doi.org/10.21603/2074-9414-2021-2-260-269
37. Sheveleva SA. Probiotics in the food industry: standards and prospects. Milk Processing. 2018;(12):16–19. (In Russ.). https://www.elibrary.ru/YVLZLN
38. Serba EM, Rachkov KV, Orlova EV, Overchenko MB, Rimareva LV, Polyakov VA. The study of fractional composition of food biocorrectors of yeast biomass. Storage and Processing of Farm Products. 2013;(11):18–21. (In Russ.). https://www.elibrary.ru/RSQFPD
39. Serba EM, Rimareva LV, Overchenko MB, Ignatova NI, Shelekhova NV, Pogorzhelskaya NS, et al. Biotechnological aspects of obtaining functional ingredients by the conversion of Saccharomyces cerevisiae 985-T biomass. Biotechnology in Russia. 2020;36(4):34–41. (In Russ.). https://doi.org/10.21519/0234-2758-2020-36-4-34-41
40. Chang C-L, Kao T-H. Antiobesity effect of brewer’s yeast biomass in animal model. Journal of Functional Foods. 2019;55:255–262. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jff.2019.02.027
41. Meledina TV, Davydenko SG. Saccharomyces cerevisiae: morphology, chemical composition, and metabolism. St. Petersburg: ITMO University; 2015. 90 p. (In Russ.). https://www.elibrary.ru/ZUYMCB
42. Rekstina VV, Bykova AA, Ziganshin RH, Kalebina TS. GPI-modified proteins non-covalently attached to Saccharomyces cerevisiae yeast cell wall. Biochemistry. 2019;84(12):1867–1875. (In Russ.). https://www.elibrary.ru/TMYBLL
43. Felippe J, Silva Júnior MR, Maciel FMB, de Macedo Soares A, Mendes NF. Infection prevention in patients with severe multiple trauma with the immunmodulator beta-1,3 polyglucose (glucan). Surgery, Gynecology and Obstetrics. 2002;177(4):383–388.
44. Dőll M, Hauss R, Spermezan R. Application observation: Immunomodulating effect of (1,3),(1,6)-D-glucan-shown on neopterin and b-defensin synthesis. Naturopathic Practice. 2005;5:676–681. (In German).
45. Lehne G, Haneberg B, Gaustad P, Johansen PW, Preus H, Abrahamsen TG. Oral administration of a new soluble branched 1,3-D-glucan is well tolerated and can lead to increased salivary concentrations of immunoglobulin A in healthy volunteers. Clinical and Experimental Immunology. 2006;143(1):65–69. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2249.2005.02962.x
46. Bzducha-Wróbel A, Błażejak S, Kawarska A, Stasiak-Różańska L, Gientka I, Majewska E. Evaluation of the efficiency of different disruption methods on yeast cell wall preparation for β-glucan isolation. Molecules. 2014;19(12):20941–20961. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules191220941
47. Kolombet LV, Zhigletsova SK, Derbyshev VV, Ezhov DV, Kosareva NI, Bystrova EV. Microfungicid – a preparation based on Trichoderma viride for plant diseases control. Applied Biochemistry and Microbiology. 2001;37(1):110–114.
48. Yunus F-N, Nadeem M, Rashid F. Single-cell protein production through microbial conversion of lignocellulosic residue (wheat bran) for animal feed. Journal of the Institute of Brewing. 2015;121(4):553–557. https://doi.org/10.1002/jib.251
49. Berdy J. Thoughts and facts about antibiotics: Where we are now and where we are heading. The Journal of Antibiotics. 2012;65:385–395. https://doi.org/10.1038/ja.2012.27
50. Holiday J, Cleaver M. Medicinal value of the caterpillar fungi species of the genus Cordyceps (Fr.) Link (Ascomycetes): A review. International Journal of Medicinal Mushrooms. 2008;10(3):219–234. https://doi.org/10.1615/IntJMedMushr.v10.i3.30
51. Semenova EV, Tyumentseva VR, Kozubenko AA, Chebotok VV, Borisovskaya IV. Biologically active compounds of mushrooms – a source of innovations in medicine. Modern Problems of Science and Education. 2020;(1).
52. Wang X, Li Y, Zhang X, Lai D, Zhou L. Structural diversity and biological activities of the cyclodipeptides from fungi. Molecules. 2017;22(12). https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules22122026
53. Meyer V, Andersen MR, Brakhage AA, Braus GH, Caddick MX, Cairns TC, et al. Current challenges of research on filamentous fungi in relation to human welfare and a sustainable bio-economy: a white paper. Fungal Biology and Biotechnology. 2016;3. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40694-016-0024-8
54. Zuo S-S, Niu D-Z, Ning T-T, Zheng M-L, Jiang D, Xu C-C. Protein enrichment of sweet potato beverage residues mixed with peanut shells by Aspergillus oryzae and Bacillus subtilis using central composite design. Waste and Biomass Valorization. 2018;9:835–844. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12649-017-9844-x
55. Novinyuk LV, Kabanov VL, Kuznetsova LI, Parakhina OI, Kostyuchenko MN, Velinzon PZ, et al. Effect of chitosan from Aspergillus niger fungal mycelium on quality of gluten-free bread. Baking in Russia. 2020;(1):35–39 (In Russ.). https://doi.org/10.37443/2073-3569-2020-1-1-35-39
56. Novinyuk LV, Velinzon PZ, Kulev DKh. Sorption properties of chitinand chitosan-glucan bio-complexes isolated from Aspergillus niger fungal mycelia biomass. Proceedings of Universities. Applied Chemistry and Biotechnology. 2017;7(2):64–71. (In Russ.). https://doi.org/10.21285/2227-2925-2017-7-2-64-71
57. Serba EM, Rimareva LV, Overchenko MB, Sokolova EN, Pogorzhelskaya NS, Ignatova NI, et al. Mycelia fungi – promising source of hydrolasas and valuable polymers. Vestnik of the Russian Agricultural Science. 2016;(4):41–43. (In Russ.). https://www.elibrary.ru/WEZWJH
58. Rimareva LV, Krivova AYu, Serba EM, Overchenko MB, Ignatova NI, Pogorzelskaya NS, et al. Biological preparation based on yeast and fungal biomass rich in polysaccharides and essential amino acids. Izvestiya Ufimskogo Nauchnogo Tsentra RAN. 2018;(3–3):28–33. (In Russ.). https://www.elibrary.ru/XWQPNR
59. Serba E, Overchenko M, Ignatova N, Krivova A, Kurbatova E, Sokolova E, et al. Multipurpose utilization of the Aspergillus oryzae fungus – the producer of the hydrolase complex. Vestnik of the Russian Agricultural Science. 2018;(5):29–33. (In Russ.). https://www.elibrary.ru/YLEQVF
60. Ward OP, Qin WM, Dhanjoon J, Ye J, Singh A. Physiology and biotechnology of Aspergillus. Advances in Applied Microbiology. 2005;58:1–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2164(05)58001-8
61. Klis FM, Ram AFJ, De Groot PWJ. A molecular and genomic view of the fungal cell wall. In: Howard RJ, Gow NAR, editors. Biology of the fungal cell. Heidelberg: Springer Berlin; 2007. pp. 97–120. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-70618-2_4
62. Zhong Y, Lu X, Xing L, Ho SWA, Kwan HS. Genomic and transcriptomic comparison of Aspergillus oryzae strains: A case study in soy sauce koji fermentation. Journal of Industrial Microbiology and Biotechnology. 2018;45(9):839–853. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10295-018-2059-8
63. Chen L, Madl RL, Vadlani PV. Nutritional enhancement of soy meal via Aspergillus oryzae solid‐state fermentation. Cereal Chemistry. 2013;90(6):529–534. https://doi.org/10.1094/CCHEM-01-13-0007-R
64. Serba E, Pimenov N, Mochalina P, Overchenko M, Borscheva Yu, Sharikov A, et al. Production of Aspergillus oryzae RCAM 01133 biomass with increased protein and polysaccharides content using by-products of food industry. Agronomy Research. 2020;18(1):290–300. https://doi.org/10.15159/ar.20.026
65. Shin H-Y, Kim S-M, Lee J-H, Lim S-T. Solid-state fermentation of black rice bran with Aspergillus awamori and Aspergillus oryzae: Effects on phenolic acid composition and antioxidant activity of bran extracts. Food Chemistry. 2019;272:235–241. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2018.07.174
66. Gow NAR, Latge J-P, Munro CA. The fungal cell wall: Structure, biosynthesis, and function. Microbiology Spectrum. 2017;5(3). https://doi.org/10.1128/microbiolspec.FUNK-0035-2016
67. Krogan NJ, Cagney G, Yu H, Zhong G, Guo X, Ignatchenko A. Global landscape of protein complexes in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Nature. 2006;440:637–643. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature04670
68. Rimareva LV, Serba EM, Sokolova EN, Borshcheva YuA, Ignatova NI. Enzyme preparations and biocatalytic processes in the food industry. Problems of Nutrition. 2017;86(5):63–74. (In Russ.). https://doi.org/10.24411/0042-8833-2017-00078
69. Rawlings ND, Morton FR, Barrett AJ. MEROPS: the peptidase database. Nucleic Acides Research. 2006;34:D270–D272. https://doi.org/10.1093/nar/gkj089
70. Lysenko LA, Nemova NN, Kantserova NP. Proteolytic regulation of biological processes. Petrozavodsk: KarNTS RAN; 2011. 478 p. (In Russ.).
71. Serba EM, Overchenko MB, Pogorzhelskaya NS, Kurbatova EI, Polyakov VA, Rimareva LV. Dependence of destruction degree in protein substances of microbe biomass on composition of proteolytic complex. Vestnik of the Russian Agricultural Science. 2015;(2):48–51. (In Russ.). https://www.elibrary.ru/TQNHCH
72. Orlova EV, Rimareva LV. Research of antioxidant properties of preparation received on the basis of adjustable ferment hydrolysis of biomass of yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Storage and Processing of Farm Products. 2007;(11):63–64. (In Russ.). https://www.elibrary.ru/IIVWHN
73. Orlova EV, Rimareva LV, Overchenko MB, Orlova VS, Serba EM. Effect of Saccharomyces cerevisiae enzyme lysates on the cell cycle and apoptosis of transplanted tumor cells. Biosecurity and Biosafety. 2012;4(3):48–51. (In Russ.). https://www.elibrary.ru/PILFFP
74. Serba EM, Rimareva LV, Yuraskina TV, Sokolova EN, Revyakina VA. Biomedical and biotechnological aspects of the production of functional ingredients based on yeast biomass. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science. 2021;848. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/848/1/012208
75. Yu KW, Kim JM, Oh SH, Chang UJ, Suh HJ. Physiological effects of yeast hydrolysate SCP-20. Food Research International. 2002;35(9):879–884. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0963-9969(02)00097-2
76. Rimareva LV, Serba EM, Overchenko MB, Rachkov KV, Orlova EV, Abramova IM. The use of Aspergillus oryzae fungal biomass as a source of biologically active substances. Storage and Processing of Farm Products. 2012;(9):46–50. (In Russ.). https://www.elibrary.ru/PDHVVR
77. Azad SK, Shariatmadari F, Karimi Torshizi MA. Production of zinc-enriched biomass of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Journal of Elementology. 2014;19(2):313–326.
78. De Nicola R, Walker G. Interaction between yeasts and zinc. In: Satyanarayana T, Kunze G, editors. Yeast biotechology: Diveristy and applications. Dordrecht: Springer; 2009. pp. 237–257. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-8292-4_1
79. Zorin SN, Gmoshinskiy IV, Burdza EA, Mazo VK. New nutritional sources of essential trace elements. Report 7. Production of autolysates of selenium-containing nutritional yeast and their physicochemical characteristic. Pediatric Nutrition. 2006;4(6):18–21. (In Russ.). https://www.elibrary.ru/IAYZHZ
80. Islammagomedova EA, Khalilova EA, Gasanov RZ, Abakarova AA. Content of mineral substances in Saccharomyces yeast depending on conditions of cultivation. Herald of Daghestan Scientific Center. 2017;(65):24–31. (In Russ.). https://www.elibrary.ru/ZMIQCL
81. Jach ME, Serefko A. Nutritional yeast biomass: Characterization and application. In: Holban AM, Grumezescu AM, editors. Diet, microbiome and health. A volume in Handbook of Food Bioengineering. Academic Press; 2018. pp. 237–270. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-811440-7.00009-0
82. Popovich YuO, Fedotov VP. The role of tryptophan and its metabolites in the pathogenesis of atopic dermatitis in patients of different age groups. Dermatology. Cosmetology. Sexopathology. 2015;(1–2):16–19. (In Russ.).
83. Orlova EV, Orlova VS, Gergert VYa. Efficacy of nucleotide biocorrector derived from baking yeast of the Saccharomyces cerevis genus in patients with lung tuberculosis. Pulmonologiya. 2007;(1):107–111. (In Russ.). https://doi.org/10.18093/0869-0189-2007-0-1-107-110
84. Latkov NYu, Vekovtsev AA, Koshelev YuA, Bakaytis VI. Relevant problems of sports nutrition. Food and Raw Materials. 2015;3(1):77–85. https://doi.org/10.12737/11241
85. Nikityuk DB, Latkov NYu, Suslov NI, Poznyakovskiy VM. Biologically active natural complexes in resolving high-priority issues of sport nutrition. Human. Sport. Medicine. 2017;17(4):64–76. (In Russ.). https://doi.org/10.14529/hsm170408
86. Kim KS, Yun HS. Production of soluble β-glucan from the cell wall of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Enzyme and Microbial Technology. 2006;39(3):496–500. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enzmictec.2005.12.020
87. Liu Y, Wu Q, Wu X, Algharib SA, Gong F, Hu J, et al. Structure, preparation, modification, and bioactivities of β-glucan and mannan from yeast cell wall: A review. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules. 2021;173:445–456. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2021.01.125
88. Kumaresapillai N, Basha RA, Sathish R. Production and evaluation of chitosan from Aspergillus niger MTCC strains. Iranian Journal of Pharmaceutical Research. 2011;10(3):553–558. https://doi.org/10.22037/IJPR.2011.1003
89. Novinyuk LV, Kulev DH, Velinzon PZ, Sharova NYu. Isolation of chitin and chitosan glucan biopolymers from mycelial waste citric acid production. Food Industry. 2016;(11):30–31. (In Russ.). https://www.elibrary.ru/XBSOPX
90. Sharova NYu, Manzhieva BS, Printseva AA, Vybornova TV. Beta-glucans from biomass of plant and microbial origin. Food systems. 2019;2(1):23–26. https://doi.org/10.21323/2618-9771-2019-2-1-23-26
91. Friedman M, Juneja VK. Review of antimicrobial and antioxidative activities of chitosans in food. Journal of Food Protection. 2010;73(9):1737–1761. https://doi.org/10.4315/0362-028X-73.9.1737
92. Tayel AA. Microbial chitosan as a biopreservative for fish sausages. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules. 2016;93:41–46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2016.08.061
93. Alsaggaf MS, Moussa SH, Tayel AA. Application of fungal chitosan incorporated with pomegranate peel extract as edible coating for microbiological, chemical and sensorial quality enhancement of Nile tilapia fillets. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules. 2017;99:499–505. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2017.03.017
94. Philibert T, Lee BH, Fabien N. Current status and new perspectives on chitin and chitosan as functional biopolymers. Applied Biochemistry and Biotechnology. 2017;181:1314–1337. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12010-016-2286-2
95. Jouany JP, Yiannikouris A, Bertin G. The chemical bonds between mycotoxins and cell wall components of Saccharomyces cerevisiae have been identified. Archiva Zootechnica. 2005;8(4):26–50.
96. Chen J, Seviour R. Medicinal importance of fungal β-(1→3),(1→6)-glucans. Mycological Research. 2007;111(6):635–652. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mycres.2007.02.011
97. Liu D, Zeng X-A, Sun D-W, Han Z. Disruption and proteins release by ultrasonication of yeast cells. Innovative Food Science and Emerging Technologies. 2013;18:132–137. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ifset.2013.02.006
98. Cerba EM, Rimareva LV, Mochalina PYu, Overchenko MB, Ignatova NI, Pogorzhel`skaya NS. Biopreparations with functional properties based on the biomass of Aspergillus oryzae as a hydrolase producer. Advances in Medical Mycology. 2018;19:215–222. (In Russ.). https://www.elibrary.ru/XQJRCP
99. Yasenyavskaya AL, Samotrueva MA, Bashkina OA, Andreeva LA, Myasoedov NF, Tyurenkov IN, et al. Neuropeptide regulation of immunity. Immunologiya. 2018;39(5–6):326–336. (In Russ.). https://www.elibrary.ru/KWZZZD
100. Ashmarin IP, Koroleva SV, Myasoedov NF. Synactones – functionally conjugated complexes of endogenous regulators. Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology. 2006;69(5):3–6. (In Russ.). https://www.elibrary.ru/SZXCUL
101. Sarmadi BH, Ismail A. Antioxidative peptides from food proteins: A review. Peptides. 2010;31(10):1949–1956. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.peptides.2010.06.020
102. Prosekov AYu. Biologically active peptides from whey proteins. Milk Processing. 2010;(5):12–13. (In Russ.). https://www.elibrary.ru/VIFPJB
103. Skata R. Bioactive peptides and probiotics for functional meat products. Meat Technology. 2017;(2):40–43. (In Russ.).
104. Kulikova OG, Mal’tsev DI, Il’ina AP, Burdina AV, Yamskova VP, Yamskov IA. Biologically active peptides isolated from dill Anethum graveolens L. Applied Biochemistry and Microbiology. 2015;51(3):362–366. https://doi.org/10.1134/S0003683815030114
105. Ulug SK, Jahandideh F, Wu J. Novel technologies for the production of bioactive peptides. Trends in Food Science and Technology. 2021;108:27–39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2020.12.002
106. Chumak AG, Rutkevich SA, Kazakevich VB, Al`fer IYu. Neurotransmitters of amino acid origin as regulators of vital body functions. Vestnik BGU. Series 2: Chemistry. Biology. Geography. 2011;(3):58–62. (In Russ.).
107. Bobiev GM, Bunyatyan ND, Sayadyan XS. Immunoactive peptides and their coordination compounds in medicine. Moscow: Russkij vrach; 2009. 228 p. (In Russ.).
108. Faizulloeva MM, Bobizoda GM. Study of complex formation of triptophane and dipeptide of isolaicle-triptophane with zinc ion by metric titration method. News of the National Academy of Sciences of Tajikistan. Department of Biological and Medical Sciences. 2016;195(4):32–37. (In Russ.). https://www.elibrary.ru/ZEGGHV
109. Moffett JR, Namboodiri MA. Tryptophan and the immune response. Immunology and Cell Biology. 2003;81(4):247–265. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1440-1711.2003.t01-1-01177.x
110. Pishchugin FV, Tuleberdiev IT. Kinetics and mechanism of the condensation of pyridoxal hydrochloride with L-tryptophan and D-tryptophan, and the chemical transformation of their products. Russian Journal of Physical Chemistry A. 2017;91(10):1648–1652. (In Russ.). https://doi.org/10.7868/S0044453717100326